Diversity of Islamic ruling in the Practice of Islamic Finance Essay

Diversity of Islamic ruling in the Practice of Islamic Finance Industry - Essay Example Comparative Analysis on the Sources of Islamic Sharia The Islamic law governs the religious sector, the social aspects, and also the financial as well as economic aspects of the Muslim society. The Sharia is wide and was made on the basis of the life of Prophet Mohammed by the Muslim scholars. The Islamic law influences the legal code in the Muslim communities. This is a set of laws and also regulations that are put to rule the Islamic countries. The sharia law applies in the areas like custody, the personal status including marriages and divorces, inheritances, and the economy of the Islamic society (Letha 2011). The word sharia further means ‘path’ in the Islamic community. It means the set guidelines that rule all the areas of a Muslim individual. This includes the daily routine of an individual, the religious sector, and also the financial aspects of the Muslim society. The laws are from the life experiences and lessons, teachings, and practices of the prophet Mohammed. The past and the current Muslim community apply th ese precedents and the analogy from the book to address issues that affect the Islamic society (Johnson & Vriens 2011). The law developed from the prophet who acted as a role model for the Muslim community. The Muslim scholars developed also the ‘hadith.’ This sharia law is currently used by the population in the north and west parts of Africa and also on the eastern parts of china (Johnson & Vriens 2011).... The sharia law applies in the areas like custody, the personal status including marriages and divorces, inheritances, and the economy of the Islamic society (Letha 2011). The word sharia further means ‘path’ in the Islamic community. It means the set guidelines that rule all the areas of a Muslim individual. This includes the daily routine of an individual, the religious sector, and also the financial aspects of the Muslim society. The laws are from the life experiences and lessons, teachings, and practices of the prophet Mohammed. The past and the current Muslim community apply these precedents and the analogy from the book to address issues that affect the Islamic society (Johnson & Vriens 2011). The law developed from the prophet who acted as a role model for the Muslim community. The Muslim scholars developed also the ‘hadith.’ This sharia law is currently used by the population in the north and west parts of Africa and also on the eastern parts of china (Johnson & Vriens 2011). The Quran contains a compilation of the life and the practices of prophet Mohammed. Islamic law is also referred to as the Sharia in the Arabic and in the Muslim community. It is regarded as a deep and also a rich form of intellectual tradition. The Islamic law is replete with well-developing schools of thought. The tradition encompasses scholarly tomes and detail analysis with principles, texts, and other proofs. The Islamic jurisprudence in Arabic is fiqh, from understanding. It signifies the efforts of legal specialists to interpret the Sharia and apply it to particular human circumstances. A train expiry in jurisprudence is referred to as a faqih and is often when addressing the faqih it goes with the honorific

Background Of Pulmonary Edema Health And Social Care Essay

Background Of Pulmonary Edema Health And Social Care Essay Heart failure is a medical condition that consequences as the heart is incapable to supply adequate blood flow to convene metabolic necessities or contain systemic venous arrival. According to Conte and Clinton (2012), this widespread state influences over 5 million individuals in the United States at an expense of $10-38 billion annually. In this paper, we will discuss a type of heart failure, Pulmonary Edema. Considering its etiology, types, and symptoms, we will also discuss the methodologies of its treatment. Introduction Pulmonary edema is a situation due to reason of surplus liquid in the lungs. This kind of liquid collects inside oxygen sacks inside lungs, rendering it hard to inhale and exhale (Kapoor, 2011). Typically, heart disease cause pulmonary edema. Pulmonary edema can be generally put into cardiogenic and also non-cardiogenic reasons. Cardiogenic factors behind pulmonary edema are a result of high pressure in the arteries from the lung due to poor heart function. Non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema could be frequently brought on by Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), Renal failure, quick incline so that you can large altitudes greater than 10,000 ft, The rapidly increasing lung, a great overdose in strong drugs or methadone, Pain killers drug or even chronic large dosage utilization of aspirin, or in unusual instances pulmonary embolism, transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI), a few infections, or perhaps eclampsia in pregnant women. Most sufferers with pulmonary edema inside internal medicine section tend to be elderly, having ischaemic heart problems, hypertension, diabetes, plus a previous history of pulmonary edema. The entire mortality will be large (in-hospital, 12%) and the predictors connected with large in-hospital fatality are related to remaining ventricular myocardial operate. Pulmonary vessels generate a great disproportion in the startling pressure, ultimately causing increase in the liquid filtering into the interstitial, spaces with the bronchi that exceeds the lymphatic system capacity to drain the particular liquids apart, increasing quantities associated with smooth leak into the alveolar room, the particular lymphatic system drain pipes extra extracellular fluid quantity. In the event the alveolar tissue is damaged, the particular liquid builds up in the alveoli. Hypoxemia grows if the alveolar tissue layer is thickened simply by simply fluid which affects exchange of air and also as fluid fills opening and alveolar area, lung complying decreases and air diffusion. The most common symptom of pulmonary edema will be breathlessness or perhaps breathlessness. Additional common symptoms can sometimes include easy tiredness, more rapidly developing difficulty breathing than usual having typical exercise (dyspnea in exertion), quick inhaling (tachypnea), dizziness, or weak point. Etiology and Overview: The etiology of pulmonary edema is divided into two groups: Cardiogenic: It is defined as pulmonary edema because of amplified capillary hydrostatic pressure minor to prominent pulmonary venous stress. It reflects the accretion of liquid with low-protein substance in the lungs and alveoli as a consequence of cardiac malfunction. It is caused by high pulmonary capillary hydrostatic pressure leading to transudation of liquid into the pulmonary artery and alveoli. Myocardial infarction is the universal discovery in these sufferers following-on in left ventricular malfunction and greater than before hydrostatic pressure (Bajwa Kulshrestha, 2012). Non-Cardiogenic: This is caused by various disorders in which factors other than elevated pulmonary capillary pressure are responsible for protein and fluid accumulation in the alveoli. noncardiogenic pulmonary edema (NPE), is caused by changes in permeability of the pulmonary capillary membrane as a result of either a direct or an indirect pathologic insult. The major reasons of non-cardigenic PE are Drowning, Acute glomerulonephritis, Fluid overload, infections and mismatch during blood transfusion, Neurogenic pulmonary edema, anxiety, Inhalation injury, allergic effects, adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), distress, inhalation of polluted air, Hanta virus (caused by rats having symptoms alike flu), etc. Statistics: With a getting old population and growing figures of patients enduring severe myocardial infarcts, there is a rising figure of patients with pulmonary edema. Heart malfunctioning is the most universal reason of admittance to hospital in the Medicare population in America, and more or less a million patients (978,000) were hospitalized with the identification of pulmonary edema in 1998. Other western states, for instance, Australia and the UK possess a likewise high occurrence. Authorized researches reveal that 746 per year, 62 per month, 14 per week, and 2 per day deaths are reported due to pulmonary edema. Physiology and Pathophysiology: According to Plummer and Campagnaro (2013), timely diagnosis of pulmonary edema is necessary as the situation is finely supervised by abolishing the neurogenic activator. A circulatory system of a normal person functions such that the flow of fluid from pulmonary capillaries to lungs equals removal of fluid by pulmonary lymphatic and the normal pulmonary capillary pressure is about8 mmHg. Signs and symptoms: Pulmonary Edema can be initially diagnosed by considering the symptoms such as Dyspnea (trouble in inhalation), orthopnea (conciseness of breathing), nervousness or sentiment of imminent destiny, frothy-pink or salmon-colored sputum (coughed-up matter), Cyanosis (bluish dermal state), paleness, Diaphoresis (extreme sweating), difficulty to laze horizontal, and reduced predictive indications such as Hypoxia (insufficient oxygen in body tissue), irregular blood pressure, elevated heart rate, and enlarged pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. Physical exam Patients suffering from pulmonary edema can demonstrate vital signs showing tachypnea (state of hasty inhalation), tachycardia (fast heart rate), and hypotension (irregular low blood pressure). Integument exam can reveal skin paleness and another condition of Livedo Reticularis i.e. skin yellowing, emerging with marks. Pulmonary exam shows atypical panting sounds with infrequent wheezing and odd breathing pattern with employment of secondary muscles. Cardiac exam exposes Pulsus alternans a state of discontinuous weak and strong pulse which can be an indication of left ventricular malfunction in Congestive Heart Failure and abnormal hums in cardiac diaphragm. Pathophysiology: Pulmonary edema grows when the transport of fluid from the blood vessels to the interstitial gap and in a number of cases to the alveoli surpass the arrival of fluid to the blood by route of the lymphatic. It is initiated by discrepancy in Starling pressures and crucial injury to a variety of constituents of the alveolar capillary membrane. Also, the order of fluid exchange and accumulation in the lungs and air sacs is disturbed. The pulmonary edema is represented upon three separate successive phases: Phase 1 amplification in transport of fluid from blood capillaries to the interstitial gap Phase 2 lymphatic does not follow fast pace and fluid and colloid start to amass Phase 3 alveolar capillary membrane is incredibly slender and bursts instantly, consequently alveolar overflow takes place Treatment: When evaluating the patients, a chest x-ray is essential in differentiating between aspiration pneumonitis and pulmonary edema (Udeshi, Pierre, Cantie, 2010). The goal of treatment of patients of pulmonary edema is to reduce pulmonary venous and capillary strain, enhance cardiac output, and correct the fundamental pathological conduct. Offering oxygen is the first step in therapy regarding pulmonary edema. You always obtain oxygen via a face mask or even nasal cannula à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ a flexible plastic material tube having 2 openings that provide inhalation to both nostrils. Preload decreasing drugs lower pressure brought on by smooth starting the heart and lungs. Morphine (Astramorph) may be used to relieve shortness of breath and also anxiety. Afterload reducers widen your blood vessels and also take a pressure insert away your heartà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s ventricle. Later treatments include drug and oxygen therapy. The process of Drug therapy is slightly complicated as compared to the oxygen treatment. The application of loop diuretics e.g., torsemide, bumetanide, furosemide renders vasodilation and reduces pulmonary blocking. Besides, overseeing metolazone for treatment of Congestive Heart Failure is an important aspect here. Vasodilators provide dilation of vascular artery, consequently lessening the pulmonary vascular pressure. Morphine sulfate tends to cause venous dilation and Aminophylline is prescribed after the signs of wheezing are seen. Oxygen therapy is relatively an easy process for the treatment of patients of pulmonary edema. An uncomplicated technique of Intubation is employed. However, motorized ventilation may perhaps be essential, depending on the severity of disease. Other processes are continuous positive airway pressure PAP method of respiratory ventilation mainly to avoid tracheal intubation and bi-level PAP used when airway is required with the accumulation of pressure maintenance. Swan-Ganz catheter The pulmonary artery catheter is commonly known as Swan-Ganz catheter, may be the incorporation of catheter in a pulmonary artery. The objective is diagnosis (assessment and inference); also utilized to identify heart failure or sepsis, observe therapy, and assess the consequences of medications. The pulmonary artery catheter permits undeviating, concurrent analysis regarding pressures inside right atrium, ventricle, pulmonary artery, and left atrium. Conclusion As we have already considered the statistics regarding the pulmonary edema, although it is becoming common these, yet prevention of every disease is possible. The patients who already are suffering from this, shall adhere firmly to treatment and comply with the directions given by their physicians, they should make certain that they spend their daily life according to the doctors advices and counseling, such that their situation remains under control. Also, a healthy person, to avoid pulmonary edema if follows a fit, well balanced meal and continue with an suggested bodyweight according to his age and height, his danger of developing pulmonary edema will be a great deal lesser than a person who does not follow the tips of living a healthy life.

Teaching Methods and Attitudes in Willie Russells Our Day Out Essay

Willie Russell the author of the play â€Å"Our Day out† had a very similar life to the children in the play. Russell comes from a working class background. Russell left school at the age of fifteen with no formal qualifications. When he left school he became a ladies hairdresser for five years, then a labourer for a further year. After this he enrolled on a one year ‘A’ level course this enabled him to go to ST. Katherine’s college of higher education in order to train as a teacher. Soon after this Russell decided that he would like to become a playwright after he attended a play at the Liverpool’s ‘everyman theatre’. He attended night classes specialising in drama. This is when he began writing plays. â€Å"Our Day Out† is based around a school trip from the inner cities of Liverpool to Conway Castle in Wales. This play focuses on the Progress class and their first outing on a trip with two teachers called Mr. Briggs and Mrs. Kay. They are special needs children with learning difficulties, and are taught by Mrs. Kay who is in charge of the trip. The teachers, Mr. Briggs and Mrs. Kay are best suited for the needs of the children in the Progress class. The main pupil in whom this play focuses on is a girl named Carol. Carol is a poor young girl who is eager to attend the trip, she rushes to school with enthusiasm. The deeper issues that you draw your attention are different teaching methods, attitudes towards the children, special needs education and the possibility of escaping a poor a background for both the teachers and the children. An example of the different teaching methods is Mrs. Kay is a very calm, kind, soft and gentle character and lets the children ‘get away with murder’ whereas Mr. Briggs is very abrupt, loud and shouts a lo... ...nk we should be inside, looking after them.† I think Mr. Briggs was right as the children could have been doing anything in the shop. ‘Scene twenty-one’ shows us Mr. Briggs’s views on teaching the children. Mr. Briggs wants the children to have a planned teaching method, he doesn’t like Mrs. Kay’s way of teaching as he thinks it is unorganised. I think this tells us about his character, that he knows that is the children are taught properly they can succeed. On the top of the cliff when Carol says that Briggs is just scared he’ll get into trouble if she jumps, I don’t think this is true as I really think that Mr. Briggs was caring about Carol and didn’t want her to hurt herself. I think Mr. Briggs took the kids to the fair as he was feeling very sorry for them also he had let out some deep feelings throughout the day, it just shows that every one has a nice side.

Importance of Data Security and Data Safety Essay

To prevent companies from using or passing on confidential information to other companies without the permission of the person who the data is about, companies will need to protect the data. With the popularity of the Internet there are opportunities for thieves to steal their personal data. So the government set a law (data protection act) which is used to protect people’s rights concerning how data is used and you also have the right to see such information and have any errors corrected. Also organisation will want to keep data confidential because it will not want its competitors to know how the business is going. List the 8 principles of the Data Protection Act The Data Protection Act says the personal data should: 1. Be adequate, relevant and not excessive. For example college should keep students details and details must be just what is needed and nothing more. 2. Be processed in accordance with the data subject right. For example the person that the data refers to have the right to read the information about him/her and the organisation should provide hem/her with information they need. 3. Be accurate and be kept up to date. There is a duty to keep it up to date, for example to change an address when people move. 4. Not be kept longer than necessary. For example it is alright to keep information for certain length of time but it would be wrong to keep information about past customers longer than a few years at most 5. Be obtained and processed for limited purposes. For example the organization must use the data only in the way it is described and it must not use it for any other purpose. 6. Be secure. This includes keeping the information backed up and away from any unauthorised access. It would be wrong to leave personal data open to be viewed by just anyone. 7. Not be transferred to countries outside Europe without adequate protection. Unless the country that the data is being sent to has a suitable data protection law 8. Be processed fairly and lawfully. For example if you put your money at bank no one can transfer your money without your permission. (a) What is the difference between the Internet, Intranet and Extranet? (P8) Internet: Are public networks that allow the user to use any of its facilities. Intranet and Extranet: is like a private internet. It is like a website that is only accessible to the members of a business or company. The different between Intranets and Extranet is: Intranet: Allow the members of organisation to access the access the system with an organisation. Extranet: Allow the members of organisation to access the system from different location but only by the users who have been given access rights. (b) * What is a browser? Is programme that can read web pages, by downloading HTML code and that allows the browser to interpret the code to the web page. A browser displays web pages, keeps track of where you’ve been, and remembers the places you want to return to, the most used browsers are Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. * Describe the role of a browser when using the Internet, Intranet and Extranet Browser allows the people to access information, view images, hear music and watch video, in the term of intranet and extranet the browser allows user to share documents, access databases and allow group work. * Describe the role of email when using internet communications. You can send email to an individual or to a group of people at the same time, you can create mailing list so that you can write a message and send it automatically to number of people. Also you can send files such as pictures, word document and sound as attachments to your message. (a) List major threats to an organisation that could happen while using the Internet. (P9) 1. Hacking (use to steal the personal details and private files of company) 2. The spreading of viruses (use to destroy or damage the important files of company) 3. Internet fraud (taking credit card details from customers) 4. Spay ware (is biggest threat in the computer system which allows someone to log into your computer and use it for their own purpose) 5. Spam ( sending unwanted messages especially commercial advertising) Purpose of assignment In this assignment, I have to do research and get information on the importance of data security and data safety. M research must be from ICT sources and non ICT sources and by using the evidence that I collect I should explain the importance of keeping customer information confidential, the main provision of data protection act, the role of browsers and email in internet communications, the difference between internet, intranet and extranet, the major threats to organization from internet and finally a poster that explains the importance of data safety and data security. The assignment will also gather key skills portfolio evidence. M5 Physical Security: Use of security guards, locks, reinforced doors, windows and walls depending on what is being protected. Use of ICT to enforce security entry on doors, and protected areas of buildings i.e.: swipe cards, fingerprint ID, voice recognition. Firewall: This is a security device, which acts as a single entry/exit point for information and access to a computer system. All traffic must pass through the firewall and therefore a system is secure from external threats. A firewall usually sits between the internal network of an organisation and access by the internet. Virus Protection: It is usual for systems to have some form of anti-virus software installed and running in the background. All files and devices introduced to the system would be scanned, any attempts to alter system files would be blocked, and notification made to the user/system administrator. Preventing the use of floppy disks is a good method of eliminating one source of potential virus problems. Identification of Users: A system of user ID’s and passwords is a simple method of preventing unauthorised personnel accessing the system. These should be managed by the system administrator. With this, only some users will have access to certain programmes and data therefore increasing the level of security on sensitive data. In addition, some users may only be able to read the data and not write the data. Other users may not have the ability to delete or even to access certain files. Encryption software: the data may be encrypted (coded) into a form, which can only then be decoded by the intended user. If the data falls into the wrong hands, it will be meaningless. Backups: To guard against the loss of data, backups should be regularly made. These backups should be stored in a separate place, preferably in a fireproof environment. Passwords software: Password protection usually involves a person typing in: * A User Name – to identify the person. * A Password – to identify the person. He should be the only one to know what it is. Computer viruses: which are programs that destroy the way computer operates without the knowledge of the user, there are huge numbers of viruses some are extremely malicious with the ability to delete or damage files and programs. Some of the threats that they cause to computer systems include: * Deleting data on the hard disk of the organisation computer system. * Enabling hackers to hijack the organisation system and use it for their own purposes. How do viruses spread: * CDs and floppy disks containing infected documents. * Emails containing infected attachments. Hackers: who gain unauthorised access to computer systems for the purpose of stealing and corrupting data, also gaining access to financial information about the organisation business or their customers for the purposes of fraud. Security measures may include†¦ * Each user should be given a user name and a password. * Computer usage may be logged. * Computers should be disconnected from a network when not in use. * Use a firewall – a computer running software, which detects hackers dialling in to a network. Spam: authorised users downloading a web page or receiving an email with hidden active content that attacks the organisation system or send sensitive information to unauthorised people. Organisation can stop spreading of spam by using spam filtering software Spy ware: is software that is placed on organisation computer when the employee visits certain websites, it is used to secretly gather information about the organisation usage and sends it back to advertiser or other interested company to tracking the organisation system use .it can also slow down or crashes the organisation computer Pop up: Many company advertisers on the Internet by using windows that pop up in the middle of computer screen to display a message. They might also open when you click a link or button on a Web site, and they might open either over or under the window, you wish to view. Some pop-up windows can contain inappropriate content or can be a way for employee of organisation to accidentally download dangerous software (called spyware or adware) onto organisation computer. Infringement of copyright: Internet users are not allowed to copy or print some internet materials such as; video, music, files and photos without the permission of copyright holder and sometimes they may have to pay a licence to do so. Theft and fraud: credits card fraud for example people can steal the details on credits card and using them illegally to buy goods Sole trader: A sole trader is the actual owner of a business, a sole trader also has unlimited liability. All the debts of the business are the debts of the owner. They can not issues shares .The whole meaning behind † Sole† means that she/he does not have partners. (e.g. electrical repair, picture framing, photography, diving instruction, retail shops, and hotels) Partnership A Partnership can be liable for all debts, it is easy to setup, but is also inexpensive to form. Forming partnership requires an agreement that is some times called partnership agreement ‘between two to twenty individuals’ which entitles them to jointly own and carry on a trader business together. A partnership is a contract between two or more persons who agree to pool talent and money and share profit or loss. Private limited company A Private limited company has limited liability (the shareholders cannot loose more than their original shareholdings), and a minimum of two shareholders and a maximum of fifty shareholders. It cannot offer its shares to the public. A private limited company is treated as a legal entity. Public limited company A company which may have an unlimited number of shareholders and offer its shares to the wider public. (e.g. Cadbury and Tesco) Multi-National company A company that does business in more than one country, usually by setting up branch offices. Tesco Characteristics * Type of company: Tesco is an international retailer and is a publicly owned company (Public Limited Company Plc). * Products: including food and non-food business, personal finance, internet shopping, electrical items, home entertainment, toys, sports equipment, and many more. * Profit / loss: Tesco’s Profit and Loss 2005 2004 Sales at net selling prices 37,070 33,557 Turnover including share of joint ventures 34,353 31,050 Less: share of joint ventures’ turnover (379) (236) Operating profit/(loss) 1,949 1,735 Share of operating profit/(loss) of joint ventures and associates 130 97 Net profit/(loss) on disposal of fixed assets 53 (9) Profit on ordinary activities before taxation 1,962 1,600 Underlying profit before net profit/(loss) on disposal of fixed assets, integration costs and goodwill amortisation 2,029 1,708 * Size of company: Tesco operates 923 stores and employs 240,000 people , there are 639 branches in Great Britain and 182 in the rest of Europe * Location: they operate in UK, Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Thailand, South Korea, Taiwan and the Republic of Ireland * Purpose of company: to create value for customers to earn their lifetime loyalty. * Aims: Built good non-food sales expanded into retailing services and exploited e-commerce successfully. * Objective: 1. To deliver a consistently strong customer offer. 2. Making their shopping trip as easy as possible. 3. Constantly seeking to reduce their prices to help customer spend less. * Logo: Cadbury Characteristics * Type of company: is an international retailer and is a publicly owned company (Public Limited Company Plc). * Products: chocolate and drinks brands. * Profit / loss: Cadbury Profit and Loss à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (Millions) 2006 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (Millions) 2005 Turnover 6,508.00 6,085.00 Operating Profit / (Loss) 1,003.00 825.00 Net Interest (188.00) (205.00) Pretax Profit 843.00 642.00 Post Tax Profits 703.00 497.00 Total Dividend Paid n/a n/a Retained Profit / (Loss) for the financial year n/a n/a * Size of company: they operate in more than 35 countries and they employs over 55,000 people * Location: Americas, Europe, Middle East and Africa and Asia Pacific. * Purpose of company: the organization work together to create brands people love. * Aims : 1. Deliver shareowner performance. 2. Ensure their capabilities are best in class. 3. Reinforce reputation with employees and society * objective: 1. Responding to consumer needs quickly. 2. Grow shareowner value. 3. Attract and develop the best kind of people.

History of Physical Education

Brief History of Physical Education A brief history of physical education in the United States would kick off in the nineteenth century. There was growing popularity of formal physical education programs all across Europe where calisthenics and gymnastics were all the rage. American schools looked to follow the European model by incorporating physical education into the curriculum for primary and secondary schools. And a brief history of physical education would not be complete with a consideration of institutes of higher education that gradually built up extremely successful sports programs.How it began The brief history of physical education would start in just about 1820 when schools focused on gymnastics, hygiene training and care and development of the human body. By the year 1950, over 400 institutes had introduced majors in physical education. The Young Men's Christian Association launched its very first chapter in 1851 and focused on physical activities. Colleges were encoura ged to focus on intramural sports particularly track, field and football.But physical education became a formal requirement following the civil war when many states opted to pass laws that required schools to incorporate a substantial physical education component into their curriculums. But it was not till 1970 that an amendment was made to the Federal Education Act that allowed women from high school and college to compete in athletic competitions. Sex-based discrimination was completely outlawed from government funded programs at this point. THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ADAPTED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN GREECEIn Greece the latest years special education has followed the same progression as in any other country in Europe but in a very slow pace. Specifically, Special Education services were available to Greek children since the beginning of the 20th century, adapted Physical Education was introduced the last two decades. After the first half of the century various associations developed intense activity with the aim to protect specific groups of people with special needs such as, the blind, the deaf and motionaly disabled.The initiative had clearly charitable characteristics with pity as the main feeling. The state welfare was non-existent every kind of care and prevention was accorded to the authorization of the charitable organization that with full power decided during the course of the years about the life and the future of thousands of people with special needs. The offers of the individuals had the form of institutional care (enclosed protection) with the offer of basic knowledge.The interest of private initiative led to the introduction of various institutional units and schools; firstly in the area of Attica and then in other cities of Greece. Some of the first institutions, which were created, was the â€Å"house of the blind† in 1906, the â€Å"house of the deaf and dump† in 1923, and the â€Å"Hellenic organization for the protec tion and rehabilitation of disabled children†. In 1937 much late there were more branches created such as the â€Å"national institution for the protection of the deaf and dump† in 1937, the â€Å"lighthouse of the blind† in 1946, the â€Å" school of the blind in North Greece† in 1948 etc.These institutions housed a great number of children but the role of the individuals was not only always a charitable one. However, the private sector helped in its way the state preparation so as to take up later the responsibility and interfere institutionally. The first state interferences began in 50’s and concerned mainly legislation arrangements for the blind and after for the motionaly disabled. The state however was interested in the group of the mentally retarded children and later in the motionaly disabled, which the private agents had completely ignored.The first school, which was founded by the state for the mentally retarded children, was the â€Å" original special school of Athens† in 1937. Many people considerthe state interference in the space of special education during the 30’s non-occasional. The considerable evolutions of pedagogical and psychology sciences, the establishment of obligatory attendance for all the children and the great number of mentally retarded children comparatively with other groups of â€Å" inferior individuals† was a reality which the Greek state could not ignore.From the mid of 50’s the 70’s the developments in special education came again from the wide activity of the private sector while the state followed with mainly legislation inferences and the well known sympathy towards the people with special needs. So, during this period educational units were founded and â€Å"deaf and dumb† schools in various areas of Greece and units for motionaly-disabled people. Another offer of the private sector was the foundation of children’s neuropsychiatry clini cs and schools for the group of â€Å"marginal adults† and â€Å" mentally retarded children†.The exemplification of the Greek state and the educational policy of the western countries begins in the mid of the 70’s approximately. Specifically towards the end of the 70’s measures were promoted for the professional rehabilitation of the disabled by giving motives to employers for the employment of these people. Since 1980 and then special classes for the children with, learning difficulties and slight mental retardment began to be estamplished.The Greek state in the 80’s seems to desire to participate actively with the other social factors in an attempt of reorganization of the philosophy and pre-existent structure concerning the people with special needs, which imposed their life and social back round. Precisely, emphasis was given in the whole development and the development of the potential of the people with special needs, their introduction in t he productive procedure and their mutual acceptance in the social group.Today, thousands of individuals with disabilities are introduced to sports in various settings such as schools or in sports clubs in both segregated and integrated settings by a variety of national and international organizations. The momentum for such change is contributed to several reasons: †¢ One of the most important reason is the introduction and approval of a new law, which mandates not only free public education for all children, but most important integration of children with disabilities in schools settings.This law is consideredas a springboard for the recognition for all children’s rights to participate in physical education activities. †¢ A second reason, is beginning of 90’s the implementation of the program â€Å"Sports for All†, which is organized by the General Secretariat of Sports and implemented with the support of different municipalities within Greece. †¢ A third reason, is the mandatory exposure of all students of physical education in adapted physical activity course work during their core university studies.In this way they have the opportunity not only to be introduced, but also to become specialized later on this subject. This has considerably affected their attitude to teach integrated sports. †¢ A fourth reason is the organization of the Paralympic Games of 2004, which is considered one of the largest events in the world. Due to the magnitude of this event, Greece started to evaluate the current status of the movement for sports for the disabled people, as well as, begin to take important actions towards the best organization of the games. History of Physical Education PREFACE To provide a meaningful background of physical education and sport in modern society it is helpful to have a clear understanding of its role in the past and how it emerged. The purpose of this assignment is to outline the history of physical education since time immemorial. The text begins with the beginning of the humankind engaging in physical activities, showing the history of physical education and sport being a rich tapestry of people, places, events and social forces from early civilization to the present time through transitional periods. INTRODUCTIONThe ground of education as a whole is going through remarkable challenges to serve the needs of the individual and the society, and this trend is reflected in physical education also. The history of physical education goes back to the earliest times, if we think of it in the simple terms of fitness and has existed since human society in one form or other. Since early history, even before the dawn of civilization and cultur e, physical exercise has been a very important aspect of human existence and it was not so long ago that it was called† physical culture† or â€Å"physical training†.THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD Primitive humans began life in the â€Å"Stone Age. † What can they be called? Paleolithic people, Stone agers, primitive humans or cave men. They were hunters and gatherers. They hunted wild game and fished; they gathered veggies, berries and nuts. Primitive humans depended entirely on nature for food. Primitive men moved according to their satisfaction, needs and necessity. They needed to be fit to be able to go through their journey to hunt for food and water. Being nomads and hunters, they were people who had to be persistently hunting and gathering food for survival.Their trips regularly lasted for one-to-two days for food or water and were meant for regular physical activity to be produced. When they successfully hunted, they would travel many miles and miles to cel ebrate with family and friends. Physical activities were not organized by them. The necessity for survival which is the protection against hostile environment and wild beasts, and sometimes the engagement in murder to insure their protection, motivated these men to keep themselves physically ? t and strong enough compared to stronger forces of nature. In those days there were no machines to help people in their work.That is why they had to depend exclusively upon their physical powers and physical skill. They considered their body to be their prize possession, so their primary concern was to maintain and protect their body. The order of the day was the survival of the most fit. Their sociable nature was inborn and drew only by mating and propagation that gave them the desire to dance and play, which were not being organized. Men lived in such a state for thousands of years. There was neither any organization nor system. Most of their acts were learnt by the young generations by the competence of imitation rather than instruction.This lifestyle created many physical activities and a high level fitness which defined human life. THE NEOLITHIC TRANSITION Neolithic people lived during the â€Å"New Stone Age†, from 9000 to 8000 B. C. This was the transitional period in which pre- historic societies began to control their surroundings and form civilization. The two most significant developments were the domestication of animals and farming. Their society was different from Paleolithic culture because they lived in established communities, domesticated animals and cultivated crops.As they improved their society they developed skills like spinning, weaving and building. They also made tombs and religious items. Men and women gave up hunting gathering as the only sources of living and learnt to produce their own food. Agriculture and the raise of cattle were discovered and increased to a productive economy. Many villages were built generally located next to rive rs. Then came the creation of the plow, so the difficult tasks being done by the animals and other agricultural development brought the beginning of a less active lifestyle.Social organization became more complex in the first villages, and then towns. Different kind of chiefs appeared and gave rise to a political system. There was class system whereby society was divided into rich and poor. A specialization of work took place. Apart from peasants and cattle farmers, new economical activities such as craftsmanship (fabric, pottery) were born. This era in history symbolizes the beginning of a more sedentary lifestyle, as man began to lessen some hardships of life while simultaneously decreasing daily physical activity.ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS (2500-250 B. C. ) (i) China In China, the participation of regular physical activity was encouraged by the philosophical teachings. There were no such words in the Chinese vocabulary entirely corresponding to the Western terms of â€Å"sport† and â€Å"physical education†. Such physical exercises as wrestling, swordplay, archery, charioteering and horse-racing were all incorporated in the military training and therefore came under the general term of â€Å"wuyi,† or â€Å"martial arts. † Kung Fu gymnastics was developed to keep the body in good and working condition.It consisted of various stances and movements, patterned by separate foot works and imitations of different kind of animals’ fighting styles. (ii) India India has a long recorded history of civilization but physical activity was not encouraged because of the religious teachings over there. The teachings of Buddha restricted most of the sports and games practiced by other early civilizations. However, an exercise programs known as â€Å"yoga†, same as the Chinese Cong Fu gymnastics, was developed and some other physical activities as well. According to the Hindu priests, Yoga signifies the development of body, mind, and spir it.The Ancient Indian philosophers recognized the health benefits of Yoga, which consisted of the proper functioning of organs and the whole well-being. There have been many physical activities but were never treated as a part of general education, they were mostly an entry to military career. ANCIENT GREECE: THE HEART OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION & SPORT (2500-200 B. C. ) The western civilization began with the Greeks. They were the first one to provide a methodical and philosophical attitude toward education, physical education and sport. It is believed that no other civilization has held fitness in such appreciation as the ancient Greece had.The admiration for beauty of the body and importance of health and fitness throughout society is one that is beyond compare in history. For the Greeks, the development of the body was equivalently as important as development of the mind. They believed that the physical well-being was crucial for the mental well –being. During that period, the Greek states were frequently at war with each other. The Fighting abilities were very much associated with physical fitness levels, therefore making it very important for the people to maintain high level of fitness.Athens and Sparta were the two most famous city-states and dominant force of the Greek civilization. Sparta was already militaristic by 700 B. C. Spartans were derisive of intellectualism. They were generally suspicious and conventional. All that mattered to the Spartans was being a warrior. Athens was the more democratic of the two city-states. Both city-states served the people and their needs although they were very different. Being a potential warrior was all that mattered to the Spartans. Athens was the more democratic of the two city-states. SPARTAThe Spartan system was much more autocratic. Male children were taken at the age of seven to learn the basic military skills while living in barracks. Little emphasis was placed on the arts, sciences, philosophy and lite rature. Physical activities such as gymnastics, running, jumping, boxing, wrestling and pankration (a brutal combination of  boxing and wrestling) were provided to produce powerful warriors. When the children reached the age of fourteen, they were taught group fighting tactics which would allow them to succeed while in the military from the ages of twenty to thirty.Girls did not live in public military  barracks like the boys, but they participated in discuss, gymnastics, horse riding,  javelin, swimming, running, and wrestling at separate training grounds. The objective for women’s physical education was to enable them to produce healthy and strong potential warriors. At the age of thirty, the men could then marry women who were fit and healthy so that they could make strong babies, therefore future warriors. ATHENS For the Athenian -The motto for education was â€Å"a sound mind in a sound body† (mens sana in corpore sano) Athens was quite different compared to the Sparta.The Athenian culture was a very much more freethinking and democratic society specially noted for its art, literature, philosophy as well as its political system. There were citizens, foreign settlers and slaves but only the citizens were provided with educational opportunities. When compared to Sparta, education was very different in Athens. Women had no physical education compared to Sparta. They put much more emphasis toward intellectual quest. Their objective was similar to Sparta that is preparing male warriors.Athenian education was a balance between music (including poetry) and gymnastics which enveloped a range of physical activities. Physical education was provided to the students with a series of graded activities at the Palestra, which consisted of an indoor facility for gymnastics, and to an outdoor space for boxing, discus, javelin, running, jumping, pankration, pentathlon and wrestling. Many of these athletic events were part of the four great sport and rel igious festivals which consisted of the Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian and Nemean Games.These games started as simple athletic contests dedicated to Greek gods, but the Olympic Games, in particular, over 1000 years, became increasingly complex encompassing events for boys and men in running over different distances, pentathlon, wrestling, races in armour, chariot races, and pankration. As of education more broadly, the clear objectives of physical education in Athens were to educate the mind and the body and to produce a well integrated person. ROMANS The political ambition of Rome incorporated physical education into a national program for the preparation of military.Therefore, similar to the Greeks, sports, games and physical recreation were meant to prepare boys and young men for military service. Physical education for the Romans was about athletics, which was entertainment above all. All Roman citizens between the ages of 17 and 60 had to be fit for the military service, so it was very important for all the citizens to maintain good physical condition and be prepared. Military training consisted of activities such as running, marching, jumping, and discus and javelin throwing. The fitness levels of the general Roman population declined as individuals became attracted to wealth and entertainment.People were forced to fight to the death, and oftentimes fed to lions. Women were not as marginalized in Rome as they were in Greek city-states. Some sporting events were organized for young women such as swimming, dancing, and light exercise was common, especially among the privileged classes. THE DARK (476-1000) AND MIDDLE AGES (900-1400) The Middle Ages saw the fall of the Roman Empire which was conquered by Barbarians from Northern Europe, whereby the lavish lifestyles of the Romans had resulted in the complete decay of the society's fitness level.There was the rise of Christianity, and the Christian’s influence brought about a denial of physical activity fo r anything other than manual labor. They viewed physical play as immoral, so they halted the Olympic Games in 394. The barbarians from Northern Europe were similar to the primitive humans. Their way of life consisted of hunting and gathering food, so physical activity and fitness were fundamentals for survival. Thus, despite the downfall of the Roman Empire, fitness experienced a revival during the Dark and Middle ages because survival during these challenging times required it. THE RENAISSANCE (1400-1600)During the Renaissance, a renewed appreciation for human life evolved creating an environment which was ready for the widespread development of physical education; revival of ancient Greek ideals throughout Europe. There were many people which included the religious leader;Martin Luther, the philosopher; John Locke, physical educators; Vittorino da Feltra, John Comenius, and Richard Mulcaster carried on that high fitness levels improved intellectual learning. But in the 1600s peopl e believed that if it did not have any specific purpose than just a waste of time. PHYSICAL EDUCATION AS FROM THE 1700SThere was a big change in physical education during the 1700’s which can be mostly accredited to three people: Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johan Simon, and Guts Muths. Rousseau was the first person to promote education for the people and he also concluded play as being educational and stressed the importance of physical education to the development of a strong body. In the mid 1700s, Johan Simon became the first physical education teacher and stressed on the fact that physical education should be taught along with reading and writing. Simon believed physical education should include a lot of physical effort.Guts Muths developed a series of gymnastic apparatuses and believed that very important social skills are developed through physical education. These people of that time and the things they did began to pave the road to where we are today. In 19th-century, the first indoor gymnasium was built in Germany and some countries such as Europe, Sweden and Germany developed systems of gymnastics that were adopted internationally. A gymnasium was also build in Finland where exercise was for the first time seen as a way to achieve physical treatment. In connection to exercise, students started to study anatomy and physiology.Denmark was among the first countries to require physical education in schools. By the 1820s, some American schools offered gymnasium and physical education. The physical education included the development and care of the body, and training in hygiene, callisthenic exercises, gymnastics, and the performance and management of athletic games. CONCLUSION Physical education has a cultural heritage and background which started at the dawn of civilization. Primitive human being had to be very active and physically to survive. Farming began in its primitive form and made people have more physical activity from only working in the fiel ds.People fitness levels changed here and the also began seeing a more sedentary lifestyle. Ancient Greek culture depended upon preparing its young men for war. Training for battle was not an option, but a prerequisite. Ancient physical education programs concentrated exclusively on activities that trained soldiers. The significance of physical education no longer concentrates solely on training soldiers for battle and ancient athletes for victories but for the wholesome development of a person. It began in ancient Greece and made its way around the world. REFERENCES S. E. Smith. (). What was the Neolithic Period?. Available: http://www. isegeek. com/what-was-the-neolithic-period. htm. Last accessed: 30th Oct 2012. Charles A. Bucher. (1983). Historical foundations of physical education and sport. In: Nancy K. Roberson Foundations of physical education and sport. US: The C. V. Mosby Company. P133-155. http://www. cals. ncsu. edu/agexed/aee501/rousseau. html http://prezi. com/ieokiwmd e3ni/history-of-physical-education/ Howel et al. 1994. History Of Sport And Physical Education. In: Foundations of Physical Education,pp. 17-117 A. Bruce Frederick. (). Gymnastics. Available: http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/250277/gymnastics#ref700589. Last accessed: 01st nov 2012. History of Physical Education Brief History of Physical Education A brief history of physical education in the United States would kick off in the nineteenth century. There was growing popularity of formal physical education programs all across Europe where calisthenics and gymnastics were all the rage. American schools looked to follow the European model by incorporating physical education into the curriculum for primary and secondary schools. And a brief history of physical education would not be complete with a consideration of institutes of higher education that gradually built up extremely successful sports programs.How it began The brief history of physical education would start in just about 1820 when schools focused on gymnastics, hygiene training and care and development of the human body. By the year 1950, over 400 institutes had introduced majors in physical education. The Young Men's Christian Association launched its very first chapter in 1851 and focused on physical activities. Colleges were encoura ged to focus on intramural sports particularly track, field and football.But physical education became a formal requirement following the civil war when many states opted to pass laws that required schools to incorporate a substantial physical education component into their curriculums. But it was not till 1970 that an amendment was made to the Federal Education Act that allowed women from high school and college to compete in athletic competitions. Sex-based discrimination was completely outlawed from government funded programs at this point. THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ADAPTED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN GREECEIn Greece the latest years special education has followed the same progression as in any other country in Europe but in a very slow pace. Specifically, Special Education services were available to Greek children since the beginning of the 20th century, adapted Physical Education was introduced the last two decades. After the first half of the century various associations developed intense activity with the aim to protect specific groups of people with special needs such as, the blind, the deaf and motionaly disabled.The initiative had clearly charitable characteristics with pity as the main feeling. The state welfare was non-existent every kind of care and prevention was accorded to the authorization of the charitable organization that with full power decided during the course of the years about the life and the future of thousands of people with special needs. The offers of the individuals had the form of institutional care (enclosed protection) with the offer of basic knowledge.The interest of private initiative led to the introduction of various institutional units and schools; firstly in the area of Attica and then in other cities of Greece. Some of the first institutions, which were created, was the â€Å"house of the blind† in 1906, the â€Å"house of the deaf and dump† in 1923, and the â€Å"Hellenic organization for the protec tion and rehabilitation of disabled children†. In 1937 much late there were more branches created such as the â€Å"national institution for the protection of the deaf and dump† in 1937, the â€Å"lighthouse of the blind† in 1946, the â€Å" school of the blind in North Greece† in 1948 etc.These institutions housed a great number of children but the role of the individuals was not only always a charitable one. However, the private sector helped in its way the state preparation so as to take up later the responsibility and interfere institutionally. The first state interferences began in 50’s and concerned mainly legislation arrangements for the blind and after for the motionaly disabled. The state however was interested in the group of the mentally retarded children and later in the motionaly disabled, which the private agents had completely ignored.The first school, which was founded by the state for the mentally retarded children, was the â€Å" original special school of Athens† in 1937. Many people considerthe state interference in the space of special education during the 30’s non-occasional. The considerable evolutions of pedagogical and psychology sciences, the establishment of obligatory attendance for all the children and the great number of mentally retarded children comparatively with other groups of â€Å" inferior individuals† was a reality which the Greek state could not ignore.From the mid of 50’s the 70’s the developments in special education came again from the wide activity of the private sector while the state followed with mainly legislation inferences and the well known sympathy towards the people with special needs. So, during this period educational units were founded and â€Å"deaf and dumb† schools in various areas of Greece and units for motionaly-disabled people. Another offer of the private sector was the foundation of children’s neuropsychiatry clini cs and schools for the group of â€Å"marginal adults† and â€Å" mentally retarded children†.The exemplification of the Greek state and the educational policy of the western countries begins in the mid of the 70’s approximately. Specifically towards the end of the 70’s measures were promoted for the professional rehabilitation of the disabled by giving motives to employers for the employment of these people. Since 1980 and then special classes for the children with, learning difficulties and slight mental retardment began to be estamplished.The Greek state in the 80’s seems to desire to participate actively with the other social factors in an attempt of reorganization of the philosophy and pre-existent structure concerning the people with special needs, which imposed their life and social back round. Precisely, emphasis was given in the whole development and the development of the potential of the people with special needs, their introduction in t he productive procedure and their mutual acceptance in the social group.Today, thousands of individuals with disabilities are introduced to sports in various settings such as schools or in sports clubs in both segregated and integrated settings by a variety of national and international organizations. The momentum for such change is contributed to several reasons: †¢ One of the most important reason is the introduction and approval of a new law, which mandates not only free public education for all children, but most important integration of children with disabilities in schools settings.This law is consideredas a springboard for the recognition for all children’s rights to participate in physical education activities. †¢ A second reason, is beginning of 90’s the implementation of the program â€Å"Sports for All†, which is organized by the General Secretariat of Sports and implemented with the support of different municipalities within Greece. †¢ A third reason, is the mandatory exposure of all students of physical education in adapted physical activity course work during their core university studies.In this way they have the opportunity not only to be introduced, but also to become specialized later on this subject. This has considerably affected their attitude to teach integrated sports. †¢ A fourth reason is the organization of the Paralympic Games of 2004, which is considered one of the largest events in the world. Due to the magnitude of this event, Greece started to evaluate the current status of the movement for sports for the disabled people, as well as, begin to take important actions towards the best organization of the games.